- 45What Happens During a Chain SplitWhen part of the network refuses an upgrade, two chains exist and every holder owns coins on both. The mechanics are stranger than the summaries suggest.consensus and blocks · Sep 9, 2026 · 3 min
- 44Client Diversity and Why It Is the Risk Nobody WatchesA network running mostly one software implementation has a single point of failure that no amount of node distribution fixes.node operation · Sep 9, 2026 · 2 min
- 43What Happens in a Deep ReorgShallow reorganisations are routine. Deep ones have occurred on smaller chains and the consequences are specific.consensus and blocks · Sep 9, 2026 · 2 min
- 42Reading a Transaction TraceA trace shows every internal call a transaction made. It answers the question of what actually happened when the summary does not.reading on-chain data · Sep 9, 2026 · 2 min
- 41Reading Smart Contract Code Without Being a DeveloperYou do not need to write Solidity to check the four things that matter. Each one is findable by searching the source for a keyword.reading on-chain data · Sep 9, 2026 · 2 min
- 40What Running Infrastructure Teaches YouTen years of operating nodes has changed what I think matters about these systems, mostly in the direction of caring less about the parts people argue about.node operation · Sep 9, 2026 · 2 min
- 39State Growth: The Problem Nobody Has SolvedEvery account and contract adds permanently to what nodes must store. Storage grows, node operators leave, and validation concentrates.node operation · Sep 7, 2026 · 2 min
- 38Upgrade Patterns for ContractsDeployed code is immutable, so upgradeability is achieved by indirection. The patterns determine who can change what and how fast.reading on-chain data · Sep 4, 2026 · 2 min
- 37Light Clients and Why They Matter More Than They SoundVerifying a chain without downloading it. The difference between checking and asking is the difference between a wallet you trust and one you verify.node operation · Sep 3, 2026 · 2 min
- 36Signatures: How the Network Knows It Was YouNo password is sent anywhere. The mechanism that proves authorisation without revealing the secret, and where it goes wrong in practice.reading on-chain data · Aug 30, 2026 · 3 min
- 35Transaction Ordering FairnessSomeone must decide the order. Every proposal to make that decision fair runs into the same constraints.MEV and ordering · Aug 30, 2026 · 2 min
- 34Events and Logs: Where Most Contract Data Actually LivesContracts emit events rather than storing data, because storage is expensive. That choice determines what is easy to query and what is not.reading on-chain data · Aug 29, 2026 · 2 min
- 33What a Merkle Tree Actually DoesThe structure that lets you verify one transaction is in a block without downloading the block. It is simpler than the name suggests.reading on-chain data · Aug 24, 2026 · 2 min
- 32Contract Storage and Why It Is ExpensiveWriting to persistent storage is the most costly common operation. The pricing explains a great deal about how contracts are written.reading on-chain data · Aug 18, 2026 · 2 min
- 31The Cost of Verifying EverythingEvery full node re-executes every transaction. That duplication is the entire point and it is also the reason these systems are slow.node operation · Aug 18, 2026 · 2 min
- 30How a Transaction Gets Into a Block, Step by StepFrom pressing confirm to permanent inclusion, there are seven distinct stages. Most failures happen at one of three of them.consensus and blocks · Aug 12, 2026 · 2 min
- 29Randomness on ChainA deterministic system cannot produce randomness by itself. How networks approximate it and where the approximations fail.consensus and blocks · Aug 7, 2026 · 2 min
- 28Slashing Conditions in DetailWhat actually gets a validator penalised, how severe each penalty is, and why the distinction between inactivity and misbehaviour matters.node operation · Aug 6, 2026 · 2 min
- 27Reading a Block Explorer Like an AnalystEverything about a transaction is public. Knowing which fields matter turns an explorer from a status checker into an investigative tool.reading on-chain data · Jul 31, 2026 · 2 min
- 26Zero Knowledge Proofs Without MathematicsProving a statement is true without revealing why. What the property buys, where it is used, and what it costs.reading on-chain data · Jul 27, 2026 · 2 min
- 25Why Block Propagation Time MattersA block must reach every node before the next one is produced. That constraint bounds block size, block time and effectively the throughput of any chain.consensus and blocks · Jul 25, 2026 · 2 min
- 24Reorgs: How a Confirmed Transaction Can Un-HappenA block that was part of the chain can be discarded. Understanding when and why explains every confirmation requirement you have encountered.consensus and blocks · Jul 19, 2026 · 2 min
- 23Hash Functions and Why They MatterOne operation underlies addresses, block linking, proofs and mining. Four properties explain what it is used for.reading on-chain data · Jul 15, 2026 · 2 min
- 22Precompiles and Why They ExistSome operations are too expensive to run as contract code, so they are implemented natively. The list is short and tells you what the chain considers important.consensus and blocks · Jul 11, 2026 · 2 min
- 21Why Decentralized Is a Spectrum, Not a CheckboxFive independent axes, each measurable. A network can score well on some and badly on others, and most marketing quotes only the favourable ones.consensus and blocks · Jul 7, 2026 · 3 min
- 20The Role of RPC ProvidersMost wallets talk to a handful of companies rather than to the network. What that means for privacy, reliability and censorship.node operation · Jul 3, 2026 · 2 min
- 19Nonces, Replay and OrderingA counter that guarantees transactions execute once and in order. It is also the cause of a specific and confusing class of stuck transaction.consensus and blocks · Jun 29, 2026 · 2 min
- 18Block Size, Block Time, Finality: The Three Numbers That MatterMost chain comparisons quote transactions per second. These three parameters explain what that figure actually means and what it costs.consensus and blocks · Jun 26, 2026 · 2 min
- 17Data Availability SamplingChecking that data exists without downloading it. The technique that makes rollup scaling work without every node storing everything.consensus and blocks · Jun 26, 2026 · 2 min
- 16How Explorers Index ChainsA block explorer is a database built from chain data. Knowing how it is constructed explains what it can answer and where it can be wrong.reading on-chain data · Jun 21, 2026 · 2 min
- 15Gas Refunds and Storage EconomicsClearing storage used to earn a refund large enough to create a market in it. The constraints introduced since explain the current design.consensus and blocks · Jun 17, 2026 · 2 min
- 14Finality GadgetsThe component that turns probabilistic confirmation into an explicit guarantee. What it promises and what it costs.consensus and blocks · Jun 14, 2026 · 2 min
- 13MEV Explained: Who Takes Your Money and HowTransaction ordering has value. The people who capture it are sophisticated, and the defences available to ordinary users are narrower than the explanations suggest.MEV and ordering · Jun 14, 2026 · 2 min
- 12Pruning and Archive NodesDiscarding history is safe and discarding state is not. The asymmetry determines what a node can do after pruning.node operation · Jun 10, 2026 · 2 min
- 11Checkpoints and Weak SubjectivityA new proof-of-stake node cannot determine the correct chain from the protocol alone. What it needs instead and why that is acceptable.consensus and blocks · Jun 5, 2026 · 2 min
- 10What a Validator Actually RunsThe software stack, the operational requirements and the failure modes. Considerably more mundane than the discussion of consensus suggests.node operation · Jun 2, 2026 · 2 min
- 09Proof of Work vs Proof of Stake, Without the TribalismTwo answers to the same question. Each buys security with a different resource, and each has a failure mode the other does not.consensus and blocks · Jun 1, 2026 · 3 min
- 08What a Node Actually StoresState, history and indexes are three different things with very different sizes. The distinction explains most of the confusion about node requirements.node operation · May 29, 2026 · 2 min
- 07Peer Discovery and NetworkingBefore a node can validate anything, it has to find other nodes. The mechanism is simple, adversarial, and rarely discussed.node operation · May 23, 2026 · 2 min
- 06Running a Node: What It Costs and What You GetHardware, bandwidth, time, and what you actually gain. I have run one since 2016 and the honest answer is narrower than the advocacy suggests.node operation · May 20, 2026 · 2 min
- 05The Role of the SequencerOn most rollups today, one operator decides transaction order. What that means, what it cannot do, and what happens when it stops.consensus and blocks · May 17, 2026 · 2 min
- 04How Wallets Derive AddressesOne seed phrase produces unlimited addresses through a defined path. Understanding the derivation explains several recovery problems.reading on-chain data · May 13, 2026 · 2 min
- 03How Signatures Are AggregatedCombining thousands of signatures into one is what makes large validator sets practical. The mechanism and what it costs.consensus and blocks · May 11, 2026 · 2 min
- 02What the Mempool Is, and Why It Decides Your FeeThe waiting room between broadcasting a transaction and it being included in a block. Almost everything about fees follows from what happens there.consensus and blocks · May 9, 2026 · 2 min
- 01Account Abstraction: What Changes When a Wallet Is a ContractSmart contract accounts allow recovery, spending limits and gas paid in other tokens. The trade-offs are worth understanding before switching.node operation · May 5, 2026 · 2 min